General George Washington distinguished himself as the leader of the Continental Army during the American Revolution and, after retiring to Mount Vernon, was persuaded to return to public life as president of the Constitutional Convention. What he may not have suspected was that as the delegates fashioned Article II of the Constitution, they had him in mind as their executive model of leadership and personal character. When he was unanimously elected as our nation’s first president, most citizens felt that they had chosen the ideal person to act in their interests. While President Washington’s administration was not without difficulties, he excelled in his balanced approach to government, always aware that he was creating precedents that might impact the country for decades beyond his presidency.

What were the most important actions of the Washington presidency?

CREATION OF A CABINET OF ADVISORS: When Washington convened his first cabinet meeting on November 26, 1791, he demonstrated his understanding that the pressing issues facing the new nation — national and international — required a rapid response. In the last two weeks, we looked in depth at the composition of that first cabinet, highlighting his willingness to entertain diverse opinions before making a final decision.

FORMATION OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES: The United States Constitution provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court but, when Washington raised his hand and took the oath of office, there was no court. Imagine a single president having the responsibility to select the entire court! During his two terms, Washington appointed eleven justices and was thoughtful in his nominations. He selected individuals from almost all of the thirteen new states but he also selected men who had supported the ratification of the Constitution and were willing to allow Washington some latitude in establishing the role of the executive in the new federal system.

THE WHISKEY REBELLION: In 1791, Congress authorized an excise tax on whiskey distilleries and a rebellion arose, led by western farmers who distilled their own spirits for ease in bartering or shipping east for revenue. In 1794, the protests went beyond words when former Revolutionary War veteran Major James McFarlane led a group of rebels to attack a local tax collector — with deaths occurring on both sides of the conflict.

When a peace commission failed, Washington summoned state militias from Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New Jersey. After inspecting the troops assembled under the leadership of “Light Horse” Harry Lee and Alexander Hamilton, Washington returned to Philadelphia while the troops headed west and successfully subdued the rebellion. Hundreds were arrested and Washington had confirmed the government’s right to tax the citizens in support of national projects. In an interesting note, Washington pardoned the rebels before his retirement.

FRENCH REVOLUTION: Last week, we examined Washington’s decision to remain neutral during the French Revolution and the reality that his own cabinet as divided on the issue. Washington and Secretary of Treasury Hamilton — Federalists — abhorred the violence of the Reign of Terror and feared the radical tendencies might spread to the United States. Jefferson — Republican — disliked the violence but did not see it spreading to the U.S. He did believe that the French people had a natural right to choose their leadership and establish a new form of government, just as the colonies had chosen to break with Great Britain.

The issue of neutrality became most important once France and Great Britain were engaged in armed conflict; Washington understood that the young nation had too much to lose and very little to gain by interfering in the conflict. After the French minister to the United States, Citizen Genet, disregarded the neutrality stance and attempted to arm a naval fleet in Philadelphia, Washington and his cabinet asked the French government to recall the minister. Precedent established — foreign ministers can be “dismissed” if they engage in activities in opposition to national policy.

U.S.-BRITISH RELATIONS: It’s important to acknowledge that memories of the War for Independence still shadowed America’s relationship with their former adversary and three major issues plagued the new administration.

First, because of the revolution, U.S. merchants had lost trading privileges in British ports and, a decade after the official peace treaty, merchants demanded free and neutral trade in all British ports, especially those with Caribbean ports.

Second, the Peace of Paris, 1783, dictated that the British would withdraw from the Ohio Valley but, by 1794, the forts in the region remained in British hands and it was apparent that the British were inciting the Native Peoples to engage in attacks on settlers on the western frontier.

The final area of contention loomed large over international relationships. The British continued to seize ships sailing back and forth between the U.S. and France. The Washington administration contended that they were simply engaged in free trade while the British argued that the ships were offering “aid to the enemy.”

Washington dispatched Supreme Court Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate a treaty and the resulting Jay Treaty opened British ports to limited trade, required British forces to totally withdraw and created commissions to decide the issue of prewar debts “owed” by colonial traders to British merchants.

Was everyone satisfied with the treaty ratified by the Senate in 1795? No!

THE PICKNEY TREATY: Thomas Pickney negotiated an important settlement with Spain that resolved U.S.-Spanish territorial disputes in the South and West. American ships gained the right to navigate the Mississippi River, including the ability to deposit goods and ship from the port of New Orleans. Western farmers were happy with the skills of Pickney, a Southerner.

On March 15, 1797, Washington retired to Mount Vernon, but not before he penned his farewell. Next week, we’ll look at his reflections on his presidency and his words of wisdom for future leaders. Ah, how wise he was.