If you mention James Monroe’s presidency and foreign diplomacy, most students of history immediately think “Monroe Doctrine,” a uniquely crafted document that would be applied time and again — across the decades — as a cornerstone of international policy. How did the Monroe Doctrine come into existence?

Let’s once again return to life on the frontier — in this case, the southern frontier of Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina, all slave-holding states. One major concern for Southern planters was the issue of runaway slaves who often headed for the swampy lands of Florida, a territory owned by Spain. The “international” issue associated with “reclaiming” runaways and an ongoing issue with raids conducted by the Seminole and Creek Indians into the border regions heightened the tensions with Spanish authorities.

Following the Napoleonic Wars, Spain’s political stability had diminished significantly and its ability to govern colonial properties had weakened accordingly. In the years following the Louisiana Purchase, former Spanish territory acquired by France and sold for funds to support Napoleon’s quest to unite Europe under French authority, the United States had attempted to acquire Florida.

Raids across the border continued in the years of Monroe’s first administration, and once the War of 1812’s impact had been settled, Monroe began to focus on the Southern states’ issues. He had toured the region in the early days of his presidency and had a general understanding of the precarious situation created by ongoing raids across the border. Historians differ on analysis of his decision to send General Andrew Jackson, the dashing hero of the Battle of New Orleans, to the Florida border. Did he anticipate that the fiery Jackson would “solve” the problem on his on with swift, offensive action, or did he truly just want the border secured?

Whatever his motivations, Jackson acted swiftly and, in his customary style, he invaded Florida. He and his troops took control of Pensacola, captured a second fort, deposed the “ineffective” Spanish governor, and executed two civilians who were “encouraging Indians raids” into the United States.

Imagine the reaction in Washington, DC!

Florida had been an ongoing issue. Members of Congress had imagined taking control of the situation — perhaps imagining subduing Spanish Florida renegades with military force — but the United States had just invaded a foreign nation without authorization from Congress. What would be the ramifications of such an action? Congressional representatives were viewed as screaming and holding their breaths simultaneously.

Jackson, always direct in his words, said he had acted within the authority of his command and further inferred that, if Spain had control of its territory, his action would not have been necessary. In effect, Spain’s weakness had required military action to stabilize the territory and Spain should be grateful for the U.S. intervention. Secretary of War John C. Calhoun disagreed, but then Calhoun and Jackson had always had “differences” that would only accelerate in the next decades. He demanded, supported by some in Congress, that Jackson be reprimanded and demoted as a goodwill gesture toward Spain. Spanish authorities agreed.

However, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams stepped forward and defended the general, agreeing that his orders to control the Indian raids had authorized his movements into Spanish Florida. After a few days, Monroe supported Adams’s position and together they discussed a new attempt to acquire the region since Spain obviously did not have the resources to govern it effectively. Adams reached out to Spanish authorities.

Spain realized it was, as Southerners would have said, “between a rock and a hard place.” They were dealing with multiple revolts in Spanish South America and Mexico, and in relationship to those vast lands, Florida seemed relatively insignificant. They also understood that the U.S. could simply seize the land, and they lacked the resolve or military power to respond against a country that had just defeated Great Britain for the second time. What to do?

Adams’s skillful negotiations resulted in Spain dropping all claims to Louisiana and Oregon while the U.S. would relinquish its claims to Texas and pay $5 million to the U.S. citizens who had filed claims against Spain because of the raids. The Adams-Onis Treaty — Luis de Onis was the Spanish minister — ended the potential international firestorm.

Dealing with Spain regarding Florida had led Adams to watch carefully as the Spanish colonies rebelled in hopes of self-government and independence. The mental wheels were turning and Adams was developing a U.S. position that would eventually change international policy.

Next week, the Monroe Doctrine…