The French and Indian War resulted in a British victory and an increase in land for future expansion, but the beginning years of the conflict did not predict success. The early British losses of territory shook the British morale and some members of Parliament suggested a withdrawal of forces. But war and politics is seldom so simple; a defeat in North America would have weakened the British position in the European power struggle.

While Parliament debated its course of action, William Pitt was appointed British Secretary of State, and he moved to strengthen forces in North America. He poured money into the war effort while simultaneously increasing British forces in the European theater, knowing that France would be forced to pull troops from the colonies to protect the homeland. Once the French forces in the Ohio Valley had decreased, Pitt pushed for the military leaders to go on the offense, a tactic that eventually meant victory for the British.

By 1759, the French offered to negotiate peace terms, but the British terms were viewed as unacceptable. Instead, Louis XV persuaded his cousin, the Spanish King Charles III, to join the war in the colonies, hoping that the British would be intimidated by the combined force. Instead, Britain declared war on Spain, whose military forces added little to the French fighting effort — Spain had steadily lost prowess since the defeat of its armada in the previous century. The outcome seemed inevitable and, in 1762, France was forced to concede defeat.

Once a winner had been acknowledged, a document agreeing to the terms had to be written and signed. With the 1763 Treaty of Paris, France transferred the majority of its North American land to Great Britain, including much of Canada and almost everything east of the Mississippi. The question of the Ohio Valley had been settled, and, as historian Francis Parkman famously wrote, “Half the continent had changed hands at the scratch of a pen.”

So, all was happy in the British colonies? No.

After decades of benign neglect from the Mother Country, Parliament attempted to reestablish control in the colonies by enacting the Proclamation of 1763, prohibiting the settlement of the lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains (gained by the Treaty of Paris). Having issued the restriction, Great Britain found itself unable to stop the colonists who crossed the mountains in defiance in search of fertile lands and prosperity. Had Britain won the war to lose the colonies? Members of Parliament scoffed at the upstart frontiersmen who threatened the stability of the British Empire. If troops were necessary to gain control of the colonists — and force them to pay for the previous conflict — Parliament would simply send troops and enforce legislation.

Now, the colonies found themselves saddled with what they believed was an unfair obligation to help pay for the cost of the French and Indian War. Most of the colonies had fielded militia — more highly skilled at frontier fighting than the British and mercenary forces — and, since the war in North America was an extension of the one fought on the European continent, the colonial leaders believed that the funding of the war should be borne by Great Britain. When official word reached the colonies that Parliament would transfer costs, a cry of “taxation without representation” arose.

What about the Magna Carta and the English Bill of Rights?

Imagine the reaction when the colonists were reminded that they were not truly “English citizens” and those inherent rights did not apply to colonial territories.

The taxation and limiting of rights began immediately with the Stamp Act and Quartering Act (1765). The passage of the Declaratory Act (1766) confirmed that the colonies were “subordinate and dependent upon the Crown and Parliament” and was followed by the Townshend Acts imposing taxes on paint, glass, tea, and paper. Monies raised were used for the enforcement of the law and writs of assistance against violators. Protests against the new taxation led to more troops being quartered in the colonies, and more troops led to more protests.

Could the relationship be mended? Had the “ties that bind” been broken beyond repair?

It’s 1766, and clouds were gathering.